Clinical Diagnosis, Epidemiological Patterns, and Prophylactic Strategies for Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Ruminants and Swine

Abstract

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious transboundary viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and swine, and remains a major constraint to livestock productivity and international trade. The causative agent, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Aphthovirus (family Picornaviridae) with seven immunologically distinct serotypes (O, A, C, Asia1, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3), and limited cross-protection between serotypes complicates both vaccine selection and outbreak containment. Disease transmission occurs through direct contact, contaminated fomites, animal products, and airborne spread, and outbreaks are amplified by animal movement networks, market systems, and wildlife–livestock interfaces. Clinically, FMD is characterized by fever, salivation, lameness, and vesicular lesions of the oral mucosa and feet, but definitive differentiation from other vesicular diseases requires laboratory confirmation. This review synthesizes recent advances (2020–2025) in FMD epidemiology, diagnostic approaches, and prophylactic strategies in ruminants and swine. Diagnostic methods are discussed across clinical assessment, serology (VNT, ELISA formats including DIVA-compatible assays), virus isolation, and molecular platforms such as RT-PCR, real-time PCR, RT-LAMP, multiplex PCR, microarray-based detection, and point-of-care CRISPR/Cas systems. Preventive and control measures are critically evaluated, including movement restriction, biosecurity, stamping-out strategies, vaccination programs (inactivated, polyvalent, marker vaccines, vector-based and oral candidates), and emerging technologies such as nanoparticle-based adjuvants, enhanced antigen-stability platforms, and genomic surveillance via next-generation sequencing. Despite substantial progress, persistent challenges include serotype and lineage evolution, vaccine matching gaps, carrier-state uncertainties, and limited access to high-quality diagnostics in endemic settings. Strengthening integrated surveillance, expanding field-deployable diagnostics, and accelerating development of broadly protective and DIVA-compatible vaccines are essential for sustainable control and eventual elimination of FMD