Nanotechnology-Based Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection: A Narrative Review

Abstract

Background: Infectious diseases remain a major global health burden, particularly in resource-limited settings where delayed diagnosis contributes to poor clinical outcomes, continued transmission, and ineffective outbreak control. Conventional diagnostic methods such as culture, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, polymerase chain reaction, and serological testing are reliable but often require specialized infrastructure, trained personnel, longer turnaround times, and higher operational costs. Nanotechnology-based biosensors have emerged as promising diagnostic tools because nanoscale materials can enhance signal amplification, target recognition, sensitivity, portability, and suitability for point-of-care testing. Objective: This narrative review aimed to synthesize current and foundational evidence on nanotechnology-based biosensors for infectious disease detection, focusing on nanomaterial classes, biosensor mechanisms, disease-specific applications, diagnostic advantages, and translational challenges. Methods: A narrative literature search was conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and IEEE Xplore. Peer-reviewed studies published primarily between 2018 and 2023 were prioritized, with selected earlier foundational studies included when directly relevant to biosensor development or nanomaterial-enabled infectious disease diagnostics. Evidence was synthesized thematically according to biosensor platform, nanomaterial type, target pathogen, diagnostic application, and implementation barriers. Results: Thirty-five studies were synthesized. Electrochemical, optical, fluorescence-based, colorimetric, surface plasmon resonance, field-effect transistor, magnetic, piezoelectric, and CRISPR-assisted biosensors were identified across applications including COVID-19, tuberculosis, HIV, malaria, dengue, hepatitis, influenza, Zika virus infection, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli. Gold nanoparticles, graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, magnetic nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles, nanowires, and gold nanorods enhanced biosensor performance through improved conductivity, fluorescence, plasmonic response, magnetic enrichment, and biomolecular immobilization. Conclusion: Nanotechnology-based biosensors show strong potential for rapid, sensitive, portable, and multiplexed infectious disease detection. Their clinical translation requires standardized validation, reproducible fabrication, biosafety evaluation, scalable manufacturing, regulatory approval, and real-world point-of-care assessment.